An overview of fluoride stress: physiological and biochemical responses of plants.

Fluoride, a hazardous air and soil contaminant, poses significant risks to agricultural productivity and plant health. Its accumulation in soil and subsequent uptake by plant roots and mesophyll cells interfere with critical morphological, physiological, and biochemical processes essential for growth and development. Fluoride toxicity affects germination, respiration, photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, enzyme activity, and reproduction, ultimately reducing crop yield. It disrupts cell signaling pathways, impairs antioxidant enzyme function (e.g., superoxide dismutase), and interacts antagonistically with calcium, a key element in fertilization and pollen tube growth. The resulting toxicity manifests as chlorosis, necrosis, growth inhibition, leaf and fruit abscission, and reduced seed production. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of fluoride-induced stress in plants, highlighting recent advances in understanding its mechanisms and potential mitigation strategies. By synthesizing current findings, this study offers insights into developing fluoride-resistant crops and improving management practices to safeguard agricultural productivity in contaminated regions.