Executive control from healthy ageing to cognitive impairment: A systematic review of stroop and simon effects using psychophysiological and imaging techniques.

Giuseppina Elena Cipriani, Martina Amanzio, Fabio Giovannelli, Bahar Güntekin, Sara Molfese, Neri Vitali, Rachele Marcato

Journal: Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews 2025;172():106121

PMID: 40139290

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Abstract

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of cognitive impairment and dementia in the ageing population emphasises the need for strategies to mitigate cognitive decline. While research on Alzheimer's Disease (AD) has focused on early risk factors, less attention has been paid to protective factors such as cognitive reserve (CR) and cognitive control (CC).

METHODS

This review examines age-related changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in healthy ageing and cognitive impairment. We analysed studies using Stroop and Simon tasks in conjunction with EEG, EEG/ERP, fNIRS and fMRI.

RESULTS

Of the 1411 articles reviewed, 49 studies met our criteria. The results suggest that the Stroop and Simon effects are essential for distinguishing between healthy ageing and cognitive impairment. Increased activity of the PFC supports task performance, especially in cognitive ageing. However, when compensatory mechanisms fail, deficits in Stroop and Simon effects may indicate cognitive impairment and reduced activation of the PFC.

CONCLUSION

This review emphasises the critical role of CR in attenuating age-related cognitive decline and highlights the importance of the PFC in maintaining CC.

Address: University of Turin, Department of Psychology, Turin, Italy; University of Turin, Department of Neuroscience, Turin, Italy.; University of Turin, Department of Psychology, Turin, Italy; University of Florence, Department of Statistics, Computer Science, Applications (DiSIA), Florence, Italy.; University of Florence, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Florence, Italy.; Istanbul Medipol University, School of Medicine, Department of Biophysics, Istanbul, Turkey; Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Neuroscience Research Center, Istanbul Medipol University, Istanbul, Turkey.; University of Turin, Department of Psychology, Turin, Italy.; University of Turin, Department of Psychology, Turin, Italy; University of Turin, Department of Medical Sciences, Turin, Italy.; University of Turin, Department of Psychology, Turin, Italy. Electronic address: [email protected].

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106121

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MeSH Terms: Humans, Executive Function, Cognitive Dysfunction, Stroop Test, Prefrontal Cortex, Aging, Healthy Aging, Cognitive Reserve, Magnetic Resonance Imaging