Bone Stress Injuries: Diagnosis and Management.

Bone stress injuries (BSIs) are a spectrum of overuse injuries caused by an accumulation of microdamage, from high physical demands on normal bone or normal physiologic loads on structurally compromised bone. They typically result from overuse in younger patients but are also caused by pathologic bone conditions, including relative energy deficiency in sport, which features decreased bone mineral density. Stress fractures, representing 20% of BSIs, are the most severe type and feature discernable sclerosis or fracture lines on imaging. Without treatment, they can progress to complete fractures. BSIs present as localized pain and loss of function, most often in the setting of sudden load volume changes. Palpatory bony tenderness is the most significant examination finding. Prevention focuses on recognition and optimization of modifiable risk factors, which include nutritional, lifestyle, and physical activity habits. Despite low sensitivity, radiography should be the initial imaging modality for suspected BSI. Magnetic resonance imaging is the preferred definitive study. Point-of-care ultrasonography is gaining popularity, but training and availability are barriers in primary care. Once a BSI is diagnosed, early intervention is imperative to reduce pain and promote healing. Severity of BSI (grade) and location (low- vs high-risk of complications) guide the management approach. Injuries in low-risk sites are treated conservatively, whereas fractures in high-risk sites warrant consultation with sports medicine or orthopedics. Femoral neck BSIs, especially when tension-sided, require urgent surgical consultation.