Primary heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: The intertwined pathophysiology and treatment of some of the most relevant phenotypes.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is characterized by diverse underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and can be divided into two subgroups based on the identification of the specific cause: primary and secondary HFpEF. Primary HFpEF is caused by primary impairments in myocardial relaxation or compliance with the contribution of several risk factors. Therefore, we have reviewed current literature on pathophysiology and treatment in patients with primary HFpEF. Patients with primary HFpEF represent specific "phenotypes" and are usually elderly, more commonly women, and often with a history of arterial hypertension, obesity, iron deficiency (ID), coronary artery disease (CAD), sleep apnea, diabetes, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and chronotropic incompetence. Some of the main pathophysiological mechanisms for each phenotype of primary HFpEF are as follows: arterial hypertension, which promotes left ventricular hypertrophy and fibrosis; obesity, which contributes through systemic inflammation and metabolic dysregulation; aging, which leads to ventricular-vascular stiffening; gender differences, with women experiencing changes due to smaller heart size and hormonal shifts; ID, which affects mitochondrial function; CAD, which impairs myocardial blood flow; diabetes, which is associated with hyperglycemia, lipotoxicity, insulin resistance, and microvascular rarefaction; CKD, which leads to hypertension, metabolic disturbance, systemic inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction; sleep apnea, which induces cardiac changes through pressure swings and hypoxia; and chronotropic incompetence, which is due to reduced cardiac β-receptor responsiveness. In conclusion, each factor intricately contributes to the complex pathophysiology of HFpEF. Understanding these interrelated mechanisms is critical for tailoring management strategies to improve outcomes in HFpEF patients.

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